The cardiovascular system plays a central role in maintaining homeostasis during rest and exercise. Physical activity imposes increased demands on oxygen delivery, energy metabolism, and circulatory regulation. This article investigates the normal physiological mechanisms of cardiovascular adaptation to acute and chronic exercise. Emphasis is placed on cardiac output regulation, vascular responses, autonomic nervous system balance, and structural remodeling of the heart and blood vessels. The findings demonstrate that short-term exercise primarily relies on neural and humoral mechanisms to maintain hemodynamic stability, while long-term training induces structural and functional adaptations that enhance efficiency and endurance. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for clinical physiology, sports medicine, and preventive healthcare.

cardiovascular system, exercise physiology, cardiac output, autonomic regulation, vascular adaptation

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